01/02/03
Pages xix-xxviii
The demonstration of the Xerox Alto described in the Introduction occurred in 1973. Depending on who you ask, the Alto computer made at Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center) was the first or second personal computer ever made. Some call the LINC computer built at MIT by Wes Clark in 1963 the first, although it was one of a kind and never manufactured. For reference in time, the Apple I kit first appeared in 1976 and the IBM PC in 1981. Both of these were feeble machines compared with the Alto, which several years before their introduction had a mouse, icons, overlapping windows, fonts, and a laser printer.
Dealers of Lightning, written by Pulitzer winner Michael A. Hiltzik, describes the remarkable achievements of the people at Xerox PARC during the 1970’s and early 1980’s, long before IBM PCs, Microsoft Windows and Macintoshes. Most of these achievements in both hardware and software in some way grew out of the Alto, which appears in the book again and again as the either first instance or the ancestor of important concepts in hardware and software. The graphical user interface that we take for granted in the Microsoft Windows, Macintosh, Linux and Unix machines of today was first developed for the Alto. Indeed, when Apple sued Microsoft for stealing the Macintosh interface for Microsoft Windows, Micrososft's successful defense basically was that both Apple and Microsoft stole their interfaces from Xerox PARC.
Why was Xerox PARC so successful in developing completely new concepts so early in the computing game? Hiltzik identifies four factors that led to the explosive creativity at Xerox PARC:
Xerox's money. When it founded PARC, Xerox enjoyed almost a complete monopoly in office copiers and raked in loads of cash from leasing fees for large copiers. At least at first, the costs of PARC seemed trivial, so they poured in lots of money.
Buyer's market for high-caliber talent: Lots of very good people were available for hire when PARC was founded, partly because costs of the Vietnam war led to cuts in government research budgets and a consequent shortage of jobs for researchers.
State of computer technology: Integrated circuits and semiconductor memories first became commercially available during PARC’s heyday. These technologies made it possible, from the perspectives of both size and cost, to include in a small computer enough computing power and memory to support the graphical user interface that PARC developed.
Management: PARC hired the best people they could get and then left them unburdened by directives, instructions, or deadlines. Well, at least that’s what they did early on. Later, it was different.
Although almost everyone agrees that Xerox failed to exploit fully the work at PARC that was later commercialized by Apple and Microsoft and others, many people are not aware that ultimately Xerox made more than enough money from the laser printer alone, which it did finally bring to market, to cover all PARC costs.
Note that PARC still exists as a wholly owned subsidiary of Xerox, although it is a very different place than it was during the time Hiltzik describes.
Many people find the story of Xerox PARC interesting as an adventure tale, but why are you required to read it in the course entitled Introduction to Electrical and Computer Engineering? Although it’s nice to know something about the history of a part of our discipline that has become central not only to electrical and computer engineers but to practically everyone, as well, the main benefit you can derive from studying this book is learning more about how engineering actually is done by studying what real people, most of whom are still alive, actually did to develop real products.
Beginning engineers have only limited opportunities to see what doing engineering is really like. You will have opportunity to hear and talk with engineers from industry at, for example, some on-campus meetings of the student branch of the IEEE, the international professional society for electrical and computer engineers. During the semester, you will have the opportunity to view a couple of short videos prepared by IEEE for the specific purpose of helping you understand better what it’s like to practice engineering. Later, you’ll have the opportunity to work in industry during the summers or during a co-op experience. But for now, one of the best opportunities you have for learning about how to do engineering is by reading well-written accounts of actual engineering.
As you read, note the amount of time that the engineers spend on non-technical issues, including interpersonal relations, politics, and business strategy. You’ll learn that there’s far more to engineering than technology.
Reading hints: When you see a name but cannot recall where that person fits into the scheme of things, you may find the Cast of Characters on pages ix-xii helpful. The Timeline given on pages xiii-xviii may help you keep in mind the sequence of events.